A brief review on Solanum xanthocarpum along with phytochemical and pharmacological profile

Review Article

2022 | Vol: 7(1) | Issue: 1(January-February) | https://doi.org/10.31024/apj.2022.7.1.3

A brief review on Solanum xanthocarpum along with phytochemical and pharmacological profile

Ranjan Kumar Singh^1*, Ajay Garg², Khushboo Shrimali³, Vivek Jain⁴, Saurabh K. Sinha⁴, Joohee Pradhan⁴

¹Department of Pharmacology, Shekhawati Institute of Pharmacy, Sikar, Rajasthan, India-332001; Orcid id-https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5487-0381

²Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shekhawati Institute of Pharmacy, Sikar, Rajasthan, India-332001

³Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Mahatma Gandhi College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India-332001

⁴Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mohanlal Sukhadiya University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India-313001

*Address for Corresponding Author

Ranjan Kumar Singh

Department of Pharmacology, Shekhawati Institute of Pharmacy, Sikar, Rajasthan, India-332001

Orcid id: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5487-0381

Abstract

The “deadly nightshade” family, commonly known as "black nightshades," it’s also used as a traditional medicine system in a country like India and China. Solanum xanthocarpum is known to contain alkaloids, steroids, glycol-alkaloids, steroid saponins, glycoproteins, that exhibit antitumor activity. This review explores the phytopharmacological properties of Solanum Xanthocarpum and summarizes its wide range of pharmacological applications to understand and integrate potential image issues as multipurpose medicines. Solanocarpidine and a phytosterol known as Carpesterol are also present. The seed oil contains Carpesterol. Diosgenin, lanosterol, sitosterol. Solasonnine, solamargine, and solasodine have been isolated from the plant. The roots and fruits are used for medicinal purposes. The herb is useful both internally as well as externally. The apoptotic effects and the amount of DNA fragmentation increased in a dose-dependent manner after the treatment with the protein. Authors believe this glycoprotein is a natural anticancer agent due to its potential to induce apoptosis in the HTC29 cell.

Keywords: Solanum xanthocarpum, Ethnobotanical, Carpesterol, anti-tumour

Introduction

Herbal medicines are being used by about 80% of the world population primarily in developing countries for primary health care. They have stood the test of time for their safety, efficacy, cultural acceptability, and lesser side effects. The plant Solanum Xanthocarpum Linn. (Solanaceae) is commonly called black nightshade in English, Makoi in Hindi, Kachchipandu in Telugu, Munatakali in Tamil, Piludi in Gujarati & Kamuni in Marathi. S. Xanthocarpum is one of the members of the Dasamula (ten roots) of the Ayurveda (the science of life, prevention, and longevity – the oldest and most holistic medical system). It is one of the herbs from the group laghu panchamulas – five minor roots, viz. salaparni, prsniparni, brhati, kantakari and goksura. Based on prickles, in Ayurvedic text it is also known as duhsparsa– difficult to touch, bahu kanta – of many prickles, ksudrakanta – having small prickles, etc. Ayurvedic texts mentioned three varieties of the species viz. violet flowered, yellow-flowered, and white-flowered (called Laksmana, which is rare). It is an erect, divaricately branched, unarmed, suffrutescent annual herb. Leaves ovate or oblong, sinuate-toothed or lobed, glabrous; flowers 3-8 in extra-axillary drooping subumbellate cymes; fruits purplish-black or reddish berries; seeds many, discoid, yellow, minutely (Patel et al., 2012).

Figure 1. Various therapeutic activities of S. Xanthocarpum Linn.

Figure 2. Various parts of Solanum Xanthocarpum

Botanical description

Black nightshade is a plant, an annual weed that grows up to 60cm tall, is branched, and usually straight, growing wild in wastelands and crop fields. Alternate leaves are ovate deep green with an indented margin and acuminate at the tip. The flowers are white with a yellow-colored center. The berries are green at an early stage and turn orange or black when ripened. (Parmar and Navin, 2010) Phytochemistry

It leads to the isolation of glycoalkaloids, solasonine Solanacarpine, Solanocarpidine, Carpesterol. From the non-alkaloidal portion, a glycoside of β- sitosterol with galactose as a sugar moiety has been btained along with two phenolic substances, which could be identified as methyl caffeate and caffeic acid. The fruits are reported to contain several steroidal alkaloids like solanacarpine and Solamargine. Other constituents like caffeic acid coumarins like aesculetin and aesculin, steroids Carpesterol, diosgenin, campesterol, daucosterol, and triterpenes like cycloartenol and cycloartenol were reported from the fruits. Steroidal glycoalkaloids are naturally occurring, secondary plant metabolites that are formed in several foods including potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplants. Although they are reported to be potentially noxious, glycoalkaloids and hydrolysis yield without the carbohydrate side chain (aglycons) also have beneficial effects. Carpesterol acetate is obtained from the plant of the Solanaceae family (Mahmood, 2019).

The chemical constituents present in them are a part of the physiological functions of living flora and hence they are believed to have better compatibility with the human body (Balammal et al., 2012; Patel et al., 2012).

This plant also has Lupeol, Oleanolic acid, Ursolic acid, β-Sitosterol, Campesterol, Ergosterol, Withanolide, Apigenin, Quercetin, and many more other chemical constituents as shown in Table 1 & 2 (Preet and Gupta, 2018).

Table 1. Various chemical constituents present in Solanum xanthocarpum.

S. No	Name of chemical compound	IUPAC NAME	Part used	References
1	Apigenin	5,7-dihydroxy-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)chromen-4-one	DL, RT, FT	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
2	Flavone -3- Methoxyapigenin	5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)chromen-4-one	FT	(Shivnath et al., 2021)
3	Ursolic acid	.(1S,2R,4aS,6aR,6aS,6bR,8aR,10S,12aR,14bS)-10-hydroxy-1,2,6a,6b,9,9,12a-heptamethyl-2,3,4,5,6,6a,7,8,8a,10,11,12,13,14b-tetradecahydro-1H-picene-4a-carboxylic acid	RT	(Preet and Gupta, 2018)
4	Phytol acetate	(E)-3,7,11,15-tetramethylhexadec-2-enyl] acetate	PNS	(Javaid et al., 2021)
5	Campesterol	l(3S,8S,9S,10R,13R,14S,17R)-17-[(2R,5R)-5,6-dimethylheptan-2-yl]-10,13-dimethyl-2,3,4,7,8,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydro-1H-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-ol	FT	(Beisler, 1973)
6	Beta solmergine	2S,3R,4R,5R,6S)-2-[(2R,3S,4S,5R,6R)-4-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-6-[(1S,2S,4S,5'R,6R,7S,8R,9S,12S,13R,16S)-5',7,9,13-tetramethylspiro[5-oxapentacyclo[10.8.0.0^2,9.0^4,8.0^13,18]icos-18-ene-6,2'-piperidine]-16-yl]oxy-5-[(2S,3R,4R,5R,6S)-3,4,5-trihydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxyoxan-3-yl]oxy-6- methyloxane-3,4,5-triol	FT	(Gupta, et al., 2009)
7	Nor-carpesterol	(3S,4S,5S,9R,10R,13R,14R,17R)-17-[(2S,3R,5R)-5-ethyl-3-hydroxy-6-methylheptan-2-yl]-4,10,13-trimethyl-6-oxo-1,2,3,4,5,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-yl] benzoate	P.N.S.	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
8	Diosgenin	1S,2S,4S,5'R,6R,7S,8R,9S,12S,13R,16S)-5',7,9,13-tetramethylspiro[5-oxapentacyclo[10.8.0.0^2,9.0^4,8.0^13,18]icos-18-ene-6,2'-oxane]-16-ol	TC	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
9	sarsapogenin	(1R,2S,4S,5'S,6R,7S,8R,9S,12S,13S,16S,18R)-5',7,9,13-tetramethylspiro[5-oxapentacyclo[10.8.0.0^2,9.0^4,8.0^13,18]icosane-6,2'-oxane]-16-ol	PNS	(Beisler, 1973)
10	Tomatidinol	(1S,2S,4S,6S,7S,8R,9S,12S,13R,16S)-5',7,9,13-Tetramethylspiro[5-Oxapentacyclo[10.8.0.02,9.04,8.013,18]Icos-18-Ene-6,2'-Piperidine]-16-Ol	FT	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
11	Solasurine	(2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-6-[[(2S,3S,4R,5R,6R)-3,5-Dihydroxy-2-Methyl-6-[(1S,2S,4S,5'R,6R,7S,8R,9S,12S,13R,16S)-5',7,9,13-Tetramethylspiro[5-Oxapentacyclo[10.8.0.02,9.04,8.013,18]Icos-18-Ene-6,2'-Piperidine]-16-Yl]Oxyoxan-4-Yl]Oxymethyl]Oxane-2,3,4,5-Tetrol; (3beta,22alpha,25R)-Spirosol-5-En-3-Yl 6-Deoxy-O-Beta-D-Glucopyranosyl-Alpha-L-Mannopyranoside	BR	(Hasan et al., 2020)
12	Coumerin	2H-1-benzopyran-2-one	DL, RT, FT	(Hasan et al., 2020)
13	L-altrose	(3R,4S,5R,6S)-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol	P.NS.	(Beisler, 1973)
14	Lycopene	(6E,8E,10E,12E,14E,16E,18E,20E,22E,24E,26E)-2,6,10,14,19,23,27,31-octamethyldotriaconta-2,6,8,10,12,14,16,18,20,22,24,26,30-tridecaene	FT	(Shivnath et al., 2021)
15	Tetracosane	Tetracosane	PNS	(Saxena et al., 2021)

Table 2. Phytochemical screening of different parts of Solanum xanthocarpum (Saxena et al., 2021)

S. No	Phytochemical constituents	Plant parts	Aqueous extract	Methanol extract	Ethanol extract	Petroleum Ether extract	Ethyl Acetate extract	Diethyl Ether extract	Chloroform Extract
1	Flavanoids	Stem	_	+	+	_	_	_	_
		Leaves	_	_	_	+	_	_	+
		Fruits	_	+	+	+	_	_	+
		Roots	_	_	-	-	-	-	-
2	Terpenoids	Stem	-_	+	+	_	+	+	+
		Leaves	_	+	+	_	+	+	+
		Fruits	_	+	+	+	+	+	+
		Roots	_	+	+	+	+	+	+
3	Steroids	Stem	_	_	+	_	+	_	+
		Leaves	+	+	+	+	+	+	+
		Fruits	_	+	+	+	+	+	+
		Roots	_	+	+	+	+	+	+
4	Saponins	Stem	_	_	_	_	_	_	_
		Leaves	+	+	+	_	_	_	_
		Fruits	+	+	_	_	_	_	_
		Roots	_	_	_	_	_	-	_
5	Tannins	Stem	_	_	_	_	_	_	_
		Leaves	_	_	_	_	_	_	-
		Fruits	_	-	_	-	-	-	_
		Roots	_	-	-	_	-	-	-
6	Alkaloids	Stem	+	+	+	_	_	_	_
		Leaves	+	+	+	_	_	_	_
		Fruits	+	+	+	_	-	-	_
		Roots	+	+	+	_	_	_	_
7	Cardiac glycosides	Stem	_	_	+	+	+	+	_
		Leaves	+	+	+	_	+	+	_
		Fruits	_	+	+	+	_	+	+
		Roots	_	+	+	+	_	+	_
8	Phenols	Stem	_	+	+	_	+	_	_
		Leaves	_	+	+	_	+	_	_
		fruits	_	+	+	_	+	_	_
		Roots	_	+	+	_	+	_	_

The current status of the health care system in the adequacies of synthetic drugs is likely to be more glaring in the coming years.

It has been reported that there has been an alarming increase in the number of diseases and disorders caused by synthetic drugs prompting a switch over to traditional herbal medicines. India has over 1, 08,276 species of bacteria, fungi, animals, and plants already identified and described. Out of these about 84% species constitutes fungi (21.2%), flowering plants (13.9%) and insects (49.3%). Natural products, including plants, animals, and minerals have been the basis of the treatment of human diseases. The current accepted modern medicine or allopathy has gradually developed over the years by scientific and observational efforts of scientists. However, the basis of its development remains rooted in traditional medicine and therapies. The selection of a scientific and systematic approach for the biological evaluation of plant products based on their use in the traditional systems of medicine forms the basis for an ideal approach in the development of new drugs from plants. Ancient literature also mentions herbal medicines for age-related diseases namely memory loss, osteoporosis, diabetic wounds, immune and liver disorders, etc. for which no modern medicine or only palliative therapy is available (Azhar, 2020).

Table 3. Ethnobotanical Usage Evidence

S. No.	Disorders	Part/methods	Folk area	References
1.	Hernia	Root-paste	Mukundara tribals of Rajasthan	(Pandey et al., 2018)
2.	Anthelmintic, Anti-inflammatory, Bronchitis, Colds, Cough, Diuretic, Dysentery, Febrifuge, Fevers, Haematuria, Leprosy, Piles, Sedative, Tooth pain, Ulcers.	Seeds/ Roots/ Leaves/ Barks	Taindol village, district Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh	(Jitin Rahul, 2013)
3.	As vegetable and local healers	Fruits	Manipur	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
4.	Diabetes.	Decoction of the fruit	Traditional healers of Jharkhand and Orissa	(Singh and Singh, 2010)
5.	Diabetes.	Hot aqueous extract of the matured fruits	Kondh tribes of Dhenkanal district of Orissa	(Parmar and Navin, 2010)
6.	Piles	Root poultice	Villages of South India	( Pandey, 2004)
7.	Cancer	Whole plant	Tribal practitioners in South Gujarat	(Reddy and Bhatt, 2021)
8.	Remedy for cough and asthma	Seeds	Not specified	(Rahman et al., 2003)

Caresterol

Carpesterol was the first compound isolated from the lipid fraction of plants, more than three decades ago no structural studies of the sterol have been reported. Because it was hoped that a structural knowledge of carpesterol would shed some light on the biogenetic pathway leading to solasodine,which is the major alkaloid accompanying carpesterol in SX and commonly found among many other Solanum species (Parmar and Navin, 2010).

Figure 3.Structure of different chemical constituents of Solanum xanthocarpum

Molecular Formula	C₃₉H₅₆O₅
English name	Carpesterol acetate
IUPAC Name	17-(3-acetyloxy-5-ethyl-6-methylheptan-2- yl)-4,10,13-trimethyl-6-oxo-1,2,3,4,5,9,11,12,14,15,16,17-dodecahydrocyclopenta [a] phenanthren-3- yl] benzoate
Molecular Weight	604.859 g/mol
Rf value	0.462
Mass	604.859 g/mol
IR Data	The sharp peak at 1062, 1240 cm-1 indicated the presence of C-O-C (ether)
UV range	The isolated compound solasodine in Methanol showed an absorbance peak at 212 nm.

Uses of Carpesterol

The juice of the plant or an ointment prepared from it is externally applied to cure certain skin problems and tumors. A decoction of the stalk, leaves, and roots of black nightshade is beneficial for wounds and cancerous sores. Freshly prepared extract of the plant is effective in treating cirrhosis of the liver and also works as an antidote for opium poisoning (Pandey and Garg, 2016).

General Methods of Isolation of Phytoconstituents and Evaluation of Biological Activities

Figure 4. General Methods of Isolation of Phytoconstituents

Figure 5. Isolation of Carpesterol from Solanum Xanthocarpum

Evaluation of biological activity of Carpesterol

The study was aimed at evaluating the anticancer activity of the fruits of Solanum xanthocarpum on the HeLa cell line. The fruits of Solanum xanthocarpum methanolic extract were tested for their inhibitory effect on HeLa Cell Line. The percentage viability of the cell line was carried out by using Trypan blue dye exclusion method. The cytotoxicity of Solanum xanthocarpum on HeLa cells was evaluated by the SRB assay and MTT assay. Solanum Xanthocarpum methanolic extract has significant cytotoxicity effect on HeLa Cell Line in the concentration range between 10 mg/ml to 0.0196 mg/ml by using SRB assay and study also showed that inhibitory action on HeLa cell line in the concentration range between 10 mg/ml to 0.0196 mg/ml by using MTT assay. IC50 value and R2 value of Solanum xanthocarpum on HeLa cell and Vero cell were 847.8 and 0.8724, 908.8 and 0.1017 respectively by SRB assay. IC₅₀ value and R2 value of Solanum xanthocarpum on HeLa cell were 265.0 and 0.9496 respectively by MTT assay. The IC50 value of Solanum xanthocarpum on the Vero cell was 6.862 by MTT assay. The R2 value of Solanum xanthocarpum was not found by MTT assay. From the performed assay, methanolic extract of these drugs shows greater activity on the HeLa cell line and little activity on the Vero cell line and that means Solanum Xanthocarpum can be used as anticancer activity) (Lugun et al., 2018). Plants have served as an important source of potent anticancer drugs for decades. The search for anti-cancer drugs from plant sources started in the 1950s, with the discovery of the vinca alkaloids (vinblastine and vincristine) and podophyllotoxin. This search spanned over four decades till the 1990s, when taxanes and camptothecins were launched as anti-cancer drugs. The success of plant-based molecules still inspires researchers for searching for newer anticancer agents from plants. Steroidal compounds are an important class of secondary metabolites, which have been reported to exhibit a wide range of pharmacological properties that include hypocholesterolemic, antioxidant and antidiabetic, etc. However, of particular interest is the apoptosis-inducing activity of steroidal compounds. Amongst the steroidal class of compounds, diosgenin has been previously reported to induce apoptosis in different human cancer cell lines. Thus, to identify effective apoptosis-inducing agents, we have tested several steroidal compounds, structurally related to diosgenin (including diosgenin) which were isolated from two Indian medicinal plants namely Solanum xanthocarpum (Pandey and Garg, 2016).

Effects of herbal drugs on human health

Herbal Medicines are readily available in the market from health food stores without prescriptions and are widely used in India, China, the USA, and all over the globe. According to a recent survey, the majority of people who use herbal medicines do not inform their physicians about their consumption which can cause abnormal test results and confusion in proper diagnosis.

Drug herb interactions can result in the unexpected concentration of the therapeutic drug. Several herbal products interfere with immunoassays used for monitoring the concentrations of therapeutic drugs. Herbal medicines can also cause undesired effects. Therefore, the common belief that anything natural is safe is not correct (Kant et al., 2021). The US food and drug administration mandates that only medicine has to be proven to be safe before being released into the market. Herbal products do not fall under the category of drugs as long as they are not marketed for the prevention of any diseases, its use is much more because of their easy accessibility, no expert consultation required, are considered safe to use, and also because primary health in qualitative and quantitative terms. We should make all these easily marketed Ayurvedic, and other herbal medicines FDA approved and increase public awareness about the pros and cons of their uses. The common belief that anything natural is safe is not correct. In the United Kingdom, any product that is not granted a license as a medical product by Medicine Control Agency is treated as food, and no health claim or medical advice can be given on the label. Labeling of herbal products may not reflect the content and adverse events or interactions attributed to a specific herb may be related to misidentification of the plant. Many commonly used herbal medicine in their irregular, high doses or with other medications in long term is toxic. Toxic effects of herbal medicines range from allergic reactions to cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, neurological, and dermatologic toxic effects (Parmar, et al., 2016).

The manufacturers of these products are not required to submit proof of safety and efficacy to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration before marketing. For this reason, the adverse effects and drug interactions associated with herbal remedies are largely unknown. Ginkgo-biloba extract, advertised as improving cognitive functioning, has been reported to cause spontaneous bleeding, and it may interact with anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents. The herb is useful both internally as well as externally. Natural sources such as Indian medicinal plants and herbal drugs derived from them require special attention. Antioxidants neutralize toxic and volatile free radicals. The humans get exposed to adverse physiochemical, environmental, or pathological agents this delicately maintained balance is shifted in favor of pro-oxidants resulting in oxidative stress (Schrad et al., 2016).

Conclusion

Carpesterol, a novel Phytosterol obtained from different plants of the family Solanaceae possesses several pharmacological activities not previously found within the group have been discovered. The most notable of these new properties are anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemic activity, digitalis-like activity, coronary dilatory activity, and central nervous system activity. At the same time, some new biological activities are also being mentioned i.e. with androgenic, estrogenic, progestational, and anti-tumor activity. In recent advantages related to anticancer drug research, it is a fact that cox-1/cox-2 have a significant role in apoptosis. Cox-2 inhibition of leukotrienes on human erythroleukemia (HEL) and human acute monocytic leukemia (Mono Mac 6) cell lines indicated that the compound having cox-2 inhibition can be co-related in anti-cancer activity. Carpesterol by its structure (basic steroidal nucleus) possesses all the activities as mentioned under steroids. The more over-attachment group further contributes to anti-fertility; cancer of the human reproductive system, HIV mediated cancers like other Phytosterol e.g. β-sitosterol is also Phytosterol. It’s also rival towards the new researches that how the different phytochemicals of S. Xanthocarpum are active in the biological system. There is also a wide space for researchers to evaluate the more incredible potential in this miraculous plant.

Conflict of interest

None

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Review Article

2022 | Vol: 7(1) | Issue: 1(January-February) | https://doi.org/10.31024/apj.2022.7.1.3

A brief review on Solanum xanthocarpum along with phytochemical and pharmacological profile

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